📖 Nutrition Sources
Sources for nutrition, eating, and how the body uses food.
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Key Sources for This Pillar
- Books & Textbooks
- Landmark Studies
- Experts
- Institutions
| Source | Author/Year | Tier | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy | Willett, 3rd ed (2017) | C | Evidence-based nutrition overview |
| The Hungry Brain | Guyenet (2017) | C | Brain-gut connection, appetite regulation |
| Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism | Gropper & Smith, 8th ed (2022) | C | Textbook; comprehensive nutrient metabolism |
Macronutrients
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Protein intake for muscle mass | PMC systematic review (2022) | A | 1.6 g/kg/day threshold; 66 studies |
| Protein in overweight adults | ScienceDirect meta-analysis (2024) | A | Prevents muscle loss during weight loss |
| Protein dose-response | Sports Medicine Open (2022) | A | Dose-response for strength gains |
| Protein myths & misconceptions | ISSN position (2024) | B | Common questions addressed |
| Protein for older adults | Frontiers in Nutrition (2024) | B | 1.0-1.2 g/kg recommendations |
Diet Patterns
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mediterranean diet CVD prevention | PubMed meta-analysis (March 2024) | A | Long-term cardiovascular outcomes |
| Mediterranean diet older adults | PubMed (Nov 2024) | A | 23% reduced mortality, 27% reduced CV mortality |
| Italian National Guidelines | ScienceDirect (Dec 2024) | A | 91,000+ participants; MACE reduction |
| Mediterranean microbiome connection | PMC (2024) | B | Gut microbiome mediates benefits |
| PREDIMED study | Primary | A | Landmark Mediterranean diet trial |
| Diet Quality and Mortality | Schwingshackl (2018) | A | Diet quality predicts all-cause mortality |
Fasting & Meal Timing
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| IF umbrella review | eClinicalMedicine (March 2024) | A | Benefits for overweight/obese adults |
| IF comprehensive umbrella | PubMed (Late 2024) | A | 12 meta-analyses; 122 health outcomes |
| Critical Assessment of Fasting | Endocrine Reviews (2024) | A | Study quality analysis; mechanisms |
| IF vs calorie restriction | Nature Medicine (2023) | A | Type 2 diabetes risk reduction |
| TRE systematic review | PMC (2023) | B | Preventive therapeutic applications |
Gut Microbiome & Fiber
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dietary fiber and gut microbiota | PMC (2022) | A | Comprehensive fiber review |
| Fiber intervention meta-analysis | ScienceDirect/PubMed (2018) | A | 64 studies; Bifidobacterium increase |
| Consistent fiber responses | mSystems (2024) | A | Consistent microbiome response across studies |
| Fiber and chronic disease | Quality Assurance review (2024) | B | Butyrate production, disease risk |
| Fiber, microbiome, sleep | Frontiers in Nutrition (2024) | B | Fiber's role in sleep and gut health |
Micronutrients
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin D supplementation | Nature Reviews Endocrinology (2021) | A | Health effects overview |
| Vitamin D cardiometabolic | Engineering (2024) | A | BP, cholesterol, glucose effects |
| Vitamin D 2024 guidelines | Endocrine Society (2024) | A | Updated clinical recommendations |
| Omega-3 comprehensive review | Future J Pharm Sciences (2024) | A | Sources, functions, health benefits |
| Omega-3 cognitive effects | Scientific Reports (2025) | A | Dose-response for cognition |
| Omega-3 cardiovascular | eClinicalMedicine (2021) | A | CVD outcomes meta-analysis |
Blood Sugar
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Low GI and insulin resistance | Frontiers in Nutrition (2025) | A | HOMA-IR reduction without diabetes |
| GI mega cohort meta-analysis | ScienceDirect (2024) | A | 100,000+ participants; diabetes, CVD, mortality |
| Glycemic variability CGM | PubMed (2024) | A | Cardiometabolic risk markers |
| GI systematic review | PMC (2018) | B | Body weight, diabetes, CVD |
Ultra-Processed Foods (UPF)
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| UPF umbrella review | BMJ (2024) | A | 10M+ people; 17% CVD risk, 28% CV mortality |
| UPF and all-cause mortality | JAMA Internal Medicine (June 2024) | A | 500,000+ adults; 10% increased mortality |
| NOVA classification | Monteiro et al., Public Health Nutrition (2018) | B | Original 4-group classification system |
| WHO aspartame assessment | IARC (2023) | B | Artificial sweetener safety evaluation |
Practical Application & Behavior
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Decision fatigue | Baumeister et al., J Personality & Social Psych (2008) | A | Ego depletion and self-control |
| Judicial decision fatigue | Danziger et al., PNAS (2011) | A | Extraneous factors in decisions |
| 200 daily food decisions | Wansink & Sobal, Environment & Behavior (2007) | B | Mindless eating research |
| Hungry shopping study | Tal & Wansink, JAMA Internal Medicine (2013) | B | 64% more high-calorie purchases when hungry |
| Kitchen environment and obesity | Wansink et al., Health Education & Behavior (2015) | B | Slim by design research |
| Portion size expansion | Young & Nestle, Am J Public Health (2002) | B | Portion size and obesity epidemic |
| Social eating effects | Herman et al., Psychological Bulletin (2003) | B | Presence of others affects intake |
| Flexible vs rigid eating | Westenhoefer et al., Eating Behaviors (2013) | B | Cognitive restraint patterns |
| Frozen vs fresh nutrition | Bouzari et al., J Agric Food Chem (2015) | B | Vitamin retention comparison |
| Visibility and consumption | Painter et al., Appetite (2002) | B | Convenience influences intake |
Food Sensitivities & Intolerances
| Source | Citation | Tier | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lactose intolerance prevalence | NIH NIDDK (2024) | B | Global prevalence data |
| FODMAP diet effectiveness | Gastroenterology (2014) | A | IBS symptom reduction |
| Celiac disease diagnosis | ACG Clinical Guidelines (2023) | A | Current diagnostic criteria |
| Non-celiac gluten sensitivity | Gastroenterology (2015) | B | Diagnostic criteria and mechanisms |
| Histamine intolerance | Am J Clinical Nutrition (2007) | B | Mechanisms and management |
| Elimination diet protocols | J Allergy Clin Immunol (2019) | B | Systematic elimination approaches |
| Source | Type | Tier | Focus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Examine.com | Database | C | Evidence-based supplement/nutrition info |
| Layne Norton, PhD | Researcher/Educator | C | Protein research, body composition |
| Peter Attia, MD | Physician/Podcast | C | Longevity, metabolism, fasting |
| Satchin Panda, PhD | Researcher | C | Time-restricted eating, circadian |
| Precision Nutrition | Organization | C | Applied nutrition coaching |
| Rhonda Patrick, PhD | Researcher | C | Micronutrients, health optimization |
| Source | Type | Tier | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Harvard Nutrition Source | Academic | B | Evidence-based nutrition guidance |
| NIH Office of Dietary Supplements | Government | B | Nutrient fact sheets |
| WHO | International | B | Global nutrition guidelines |
| CDC | Government | B | Public health nutrition data |
| American Heart Association | Professional | B | Diet and cardiovascular health |
| FDA | Government | B | Food labeling, nutrition facts |
| USDA | Government | B | Dietary Guidelines, food composition |
| Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics | Professional | B | Practical nutrition guidance |
| Environmental Working Group (EWG) | Non-profit | C | Dirty Dozen, pesticide research |
Sources by Topic
Macronutrients (Protein, Carbs, Fats)
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| Protein intake systematic review (2022) | A |
| Sports Medicine dose-response (2022) | A |
| ISSN protein position (2024) | B |
| Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy | C |
| Layne Norton content | C |
Micronutrients
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| Vitamin D Endocrine Society guidelines (2024) | A |
| Vitamin D Nature Reviews (2021) | A |
| Omega-3 comprehensive review (2024) | A |
| NIH Office of Dietary Supplements | B |
| Examine.com | C |
Gut Health & Fiber
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| Dietary fiber meta-analysis (2018) | A |
| mSystems fiber response (2024) | A |
| Gut microbiome PMC review (2024) | A |
| The Hungry Brain | C |
Meal Timing & Fasting
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| IF umbrella review (2024) | A |
| Endocrine Reviews critical assessment (2024) | A |
| Nature Medicine IF study (2023) | A |
| Satchin Panda research | C |
| Peter Attia | C |
Diet Patterns
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| Mediterranean diet meta-analyses (2024) | A |
| PREDIMED study | A |
| Diet Quality and Mortality (2018) | A |
| Harvard Nutrition Source | B |
Blood Sugar & Glycemic Response
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| GI mega cohort meta-analysis (2024) | A |
| Low GI insulin resistance (2025) | A |
| Glycemic variability CGM (2024) | A |
| Harvard carbohydrates guide | B |
Supplements
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| Examine.com (primary) | C |
| NIH supplement fact sheets | B |
| Vitamin D guidelines (2024) | A |
| Omega-3 reviews (2024) | A |
Hydration
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| EFSA hydration guidelines | B |
| NIH hydration research | B |
Practical Application & Behavior
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| Precision Nutrition | C |
| Harvard Nutrition Source | B |
| Decision fatigue (Baumeister 2008) | A |
| Judicial decisions (Danziger 2011) | A |
| Mindless eating (Wansink 2007) | B |
| Hungry shopping (Tal & Wansink 2013) | B |
| Kitchen environment (Wansink 2015) | B |
| Portion sizes (Young & Nestle 2002) | B |
| Social eating (Herman 2003) | B |
Ultra-Processed Foods
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| UPF umbrella review (BMJ 2024) | A |
| UPF mortality (JAMA 2024) | A |
| NOVA classification (Monteiro 2018) | B |
| FDA nutrition label guidelines | B |
Food Sensitivities
| Source | Tier |
|---|---|
| FODMAP effectiveness (2014) | A |
| Celiac ACG Guidelines (2023) | A |
| Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (2015) | B |
| Histamine intolerance (2007) | B |
| Elimination diet protocols (2019) | B |
| NIH NIDDK prevalence data | B |
Source Evaluation Notes
Tier Definitions
- Tier A (Gold Standard): Systematic reviews, meta-analyses, landmark papers in top journals
- Tier B (Strong Evidence): Peer-reviewed studies, clinical guidelines, authoritative reference works
- Tier C (Expert Opinion): Textbooks, expert consensus, reputable databases
- Tier D (Informational): Popular science books, podcasts, general articles
Key Research Findings Summary
Protein:
- Optimal for muscle: ~1.6 g/kg/day (up to 2.2 g/kg for athletes)
- Higher needs during caloric deficit and for older adults
Mediterranean Diet:
- 23-27% reduced mortality and cardiovascular risk
- Best evidence-based diet pattern for CVD prevention
Intermittent Fasting:
- Benefits for weight loss, metabolic markers in overweight/obese
- TRE shows consistent improvements in insulin, lipids
Fiber:
- Consistent microbiome response across individuals
- Increases Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus
- Butyrate production reduces chronic disease risk
Vitamin D:
- 2024 guidelines: empiric supplementation for specific populations
- Benefits most evident when baseline levels are low
Omega-3:
- Cardiovascular and cognitive benefits
- Anti-inflammatory, lipid-modulating effects
Recommended Starting Points
If you're new to nutrition research, start here:
- For evidence-based overview: Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy (Willett)
- For diet patterns: Mediterranean Diet Meta-Reviews (2024)
- For protein: PMC systematic review (2022)
- For fasting: eClinicalMedicine umbrella review (2024)
- For supplements: Examine.com + NIH fact sheets
- For individual variation: Zeevi et al. personalized nutrition study